You may be used to writing for specific purposes in your professional role and it may seem that academic writing is far wordier and more abstract or theoretical. This is often because in academic writing you are showing your working and using the writing to explore different perspectives and discuss the evidence fully. This thinking may go on behind the scenes in professional writing, but often only the outcomes and recommendations are shown in order to make it economical to read.
Academic writing shares some commonality with professional writing, they both:
It can be helpful to think of academic writing as a different genre with different conventions, style and expectations. Being aware of these differences can help you adapt your writing for an academic audience:
| Writing for an academic audience | Writing for a professional audience | |
|---|---|---|
| Written to demonstrate your learning and meet marking criteria | Written with a specific purpose and audience in mind (e.g. patients, healthcare professionals, managers) | |
| Written in continuous prose with complete paragraphs and full sentences | Can sometimes be written using bullet points and very short paragraphs of a few lines | |
| Explores ideas |
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| Discursive – fully discusses the evidence used to justify arguments/points | Concise – may consider the evidence but summarises this for the audience | |
| Evaluates different points of view and establishes a position based on this | May have evaluated evidence ‘behind the scenes’ but usually presents outcomes and/or recommendations | |
| Often uses theories or abstract frameworks and applies them | May not be as theoretical but based on professional standards/protocols | |
| Always has full references | Can be referenced, use a bibliography or may not need references | |
| Draws conclusions or hypothetical recommendations | Makes specific recommendations to be acted upon |
Developing a coherent argument and position in academic writing is often done in the stages before and after you start writing. Planning helps prevent your ideas from wandering, and redrafting can help identify and sharpen up your argument, so it is good to allow enough time for these stages in longer pieces of work.
If you are finding it difficult to work out what you think in the midst of all the views of other people, try asking yourself questions about the validity of the evidence that others are basing their views upon: Do you agree or disagree with their standpoint and, importantly, what is making you agree or disagree? A questioning attitude is the basis of critical thinking…and critical thinking is not just something we do when writing academically.
The Critical analysis guide produced by the University's Study Advice Team gives tips on critical thinking, reading and writing:
Good assignment planning starts with ideas generation and identifying what you know and what you want to find out.
This is a really valuable stage which many people miss out, but it makes your reading and planning much easier. Before rushing into your reading, note down your initial thoughts about the question/topic - an essay plan, spider diagram or mind map are all good techniques for this.
The kinds of things to note briefly are:
This helps you start formulating your argument and direction for answering the question. It also helps you focus your reading, as you can pinpoint what you need to find out and go straight to the parts of books, chapters, articles that will be most relevant.
After your reading, it is often good to summarise all your findings on a page – again, a spider diagram or mind map can help with this.
Bringing together the key points from your reading helps clarify what you have found out, and helps you find a pathway through all the ideas and issues you have encountered. If you include brief details of authors and page nos. for key information, it can act as a quick at-a-glance guide for finding the evidence you need to support your points later.
It also helps you see how your initial response to the question might have changed or become more sophisticated in light of the reading you've done. It leads into planning your essay structure which can be done in any way that suits you best: A bullet point list, spider diagram, short summary. It does not matter as long as you have a ‘road map’ to keep you on track when writing.
If you are finding it hard to get started, or there are certain aspects of your academic writing you’d like to develop, try some of these quick writing strategies:
Are you finding it hard to...? |
Try... |
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Get over the initial blank page Stop deleting or over-editing Overcome perfectionism Get the ideas in your head down on paper |
Free writing Set a timer for a short amount of time (say 5 or 10 mins) then start writing. The aim is to write continuously for that time without deleting, searching for references or saying it is rubbish. If you don’t know something write ‘I don’t know’ and carry on. |
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Identify your own argument Keep a coherent thread throughout the assignment Develop your own voice See the bigger picture |
What’s my argument? Can you summarise your overall answer to your assignment question in a paragraph? Try writing a short summary of your argument and refer to it to help ensure you are bringing this out clearly throughout your writing |
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Get started Identify your key points Write a lot in one go Write an assignment from start to finish |
Bite the bullet! If you are used to writing in bullet points, use this to help develop your structuring. Make a bullet point list of your main points for the assignment, then treat these as sub-headings (you can always remove them later if your marker doesn’t like headings). Then start to write the detail and fill in each section more fully under each bullet point. |
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Ensure your argument is clear Form well-structured paragraphs Stop your paragraphs from wandering |
First and last lines Use a highlighter and go through your first draft highlighting the first and last lines of each paragraph. Do they all link to your main argument? Does the first line act as the introduction to the paragraph and the last line act as the conclusion? Is the paragraph long enough – are there more than just two lines? Does the paragraph deal with one main point or does it wander about? |
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Stay relevant to the question Ensure you are analysing critically Ensure there is a good balance to each paragraph |
Relevant evidence Use a highlighter and highlight the pieces of evidence you use in your first draft – check that each piece of evidence is relevant and supports your point (not just loosely based on the same topic). Check that you have enough evidence and that you are analysing it, not just presenting it. |
You can think of the argument running through a piece of academic writing like a river.
Sometimes it is only possible to identify your argument clearly once you have written your first draft, as the act of writing helps clarify your thoughts. We often do not know what our position is on an issue until we have expressed what we think. The redrafting stage is a good time to identify that argument and draw it out fully. You can do this by making sure that there is a consistent message (or river) running from your introduction to your conclusion, and that every paragraph has a role to play in advancing this message
Skip to 45 seconds in on this short video for an explanation of the idea of an argument as a river, or feel free to watch the whole video for more on Structuring your Essay.
What's my argument?
Can you summarise your overall answer to your assignment question in a paragraph? Try writing a short summary of your argument and refer to it to help ensure you are bringing this out clearly throughout your writing.
For more writing strategies to help develop your academic writing see the ‘Writing strategies’ page in this guide.
Structure is important in academic writing because it helps to make your ideas clear, guides the reader's comprehension and can strengthen your arguments. Some academic writing, such as scientific reports, have a given structure or template. In this case, you should find out what is required under each heading and adhere to this; it is most likely mapped to the marking criteria so you will lose marks for not following a stated structure.
Other writing might require you to select and organise the material you are writing yourself and so develop a structure from scratch. Usually, in the introduction you should set out the structure so that the reader knows what to expect and the order in which it will be presented. The order in which information is presented should be logical so that the reader can follow your ideas and research, ideally write your structure with just one point/argument/idea per paragraph. In addition, the ideas should flow or be linked so that the reader is drawn through an explanation or argument, rather than stopping and starting at each new point. The conclusion to the piece should draw together all the points or ideas and come to a conclusion.
Whether you are following a template or devising your own structure, paragraphs in academic writing can be thought of like a ‘mini-essay’ with an introduction, main body and conclusion. The first line introduces the point being made, the main body presents and discusses the evidence to support the point and the final line concludes the point and links it back to the assignment title.
Other useful guides
When presenting a point of view, such as a line of argument for an essay, decide on the main points that you want to communicate. A paragraph can be planned (like a mini-essay) using the PEEL format:
| Point (Introduction) | What is the main topic of your paragraph? |
|
Evidence (Main Body) Explanation (Main Body) |
What evidence is there to support this point? How and why does the evidence support the point? |
| Link (Conclusion) | What contribution does this point make to your overall argument? |
Like any model, not all your paragraphs will fit neatly into this framework, but it is a useful guide to check the balance of your paragraphs: Do you have a clear point? Does the end of the paragraph link to the beginning? Have you interpreted your evidence not just left it there to ‘speak for itself’?
Also it is helpful to think of the length of your paragraphs. If they are only a few lines long, it is unlikely you are interpreting your evidence fully. If they are over a page in length, it is likely you have more than one main point and need to separate them out.
Skip to 5 minutes in on this video tutorial for an explanation and example of the model paragraph or feel free to watch the whole video for more on Targeted Reading and Use of Evidence.
You do not have to refer to each piece of evidence in the same depth. Sometimes you need to show that you understand the wider context of the issue, and a short summary of the key issues and key researchers is all that is needed. For example:
Many studies have investigated household accidents caused by cheese. These studies disagree about the most significant reasons for cheese-based injury with some arguing that choking on cheese poses the highest risk (1-3). Other studies claim that burns from melted cheese are more hazardous (4,5), whilst a minority of recent studies have identified slipping on cheese as a growing danger (6).
A significant amount of reading and in-depth understanding of the field is demonstrated in those sentences above even though the individual mentions of the evidence are quite short. The summary maps out the state of current research and the positions taken by the key researchers, and despite being short it has taken careful reading, grouping, identification, and understanding of the issues.
Sometimes you need to go into greater depth and refer to some sources in more detail in order to interrogate the methods and standpoints expressed by these researchers. For example:
A recent study introduces a new model for assessing the relative dangers of cheese related-injuries, identifying the overall total damage done as more important than the frequency of injuries (1). However, this model does not adequately take into account the theory of 'Under-reporting' which states that people are less likely to report frequently occurring small accidents until a critical mass of injuries are reached (2).
Even in this more analytical piece of writing, only the relevant points of the study and the theory are mentioned briefly - but you need a confident and thorough understanding to refer to them so concisely.
If you find it challenging to integrate evidence into your paragraphs, have a look at:
See also this video from the University's Study Advice Team on effective paraphrasing for postgraduates:
Do not be tempted to use complex language or expressions that are not your own, just to make your writing appear "academic". Use straightforward language. Your reader needs to understand the information or ideas that you are conveying.
Communicate succinctly without losing vital information or meaning. It is often easier to write fluently and then to edit out unnecessary words and phrases.
Some academic writing, such as scientific informatoin, needs to be especially precise. A reader may need to have all the information required to understand exact conditions of a scientific study and to replicate it. Using simple sentences can be helpful.
Avoid using non-quantifiable descriptions, such as:
The company's production rate was high <--replace with--> The company produced 16,00 units per week.
The wind was strong <--replace with--> The wind measured 6 on the Beaufort scale.
Editing tips to reduce word count
Your written work may be interesting, well structured and informed. Yet it may still make a bad impression because of poor proof reading.
Part of your assessment will usually relate to the standard of your written English. It's important to pay attention to things like tenses, gender, plurals and the structure of your sentences, especially if you have rewritten or moved sections of your work. It's easy to lose marks - but it's also easy to make sure you don't.
Below are ten brief tips to help you to proof read your work as effectively as possible.
When at studying level 7 (Masters Level), your academic writing must reflect the level of critical analysis, synthesis and application to practice commensurate with this level of study.
Studying at level 7 means developing your studying practices from those suited to being an independent learner to those suited to being an independent practitioner. You will be working at a more complex and sophisticated level, with a need for broader and more independently sourced resources. You will need not only to evaluate what other people have found but also to put your own knowledge and research into context. You will be expected to be meticulous and professional and show higher standards of scholarship. The advice on this page aims to explain some of the differences between undergraduate and Masters level study.
The full marking criteria for taught postgraduate study can be found at the link below, the information in this section of the guide interprets this information to the context in which you are doing your studies.
Guidance on the requirements for assessments are included in the individual module handbooks. Some overarching principles will apply across all the assessments for all practitioners:
Achievement of level 7 study includes:
Accurate and appropriate use of language in your writing is one way of demonstrating academic rigour. You will need to be more thoughtful about the way you use language. Remember that the best writing style is clear and accurate, not unnecessarily complicated.
If English is not your first language, there is more specialised support and advice available from the University's International Study and Language Institute website (link below).
At level 7 you cannot get away with writing about something that you only vaguely understand, or squeezing in a theory in the hope it will gain extra marks - your markers will be able to tell, and this does not demonstrate the accuracy or professionalism of a researcher.
Imagine you write the sentence: "Freudian psychoanalysis demonstrates how our personalities are developed from our childhood experiences."
At level 7, the word 'demonstrates' becomes very loaded and potentially inaccurate. This is because you are expected to interrogate the assumptions, boundaries, and way in which knowledge is constructed in your subject. With this in mind, the sentence above raises a lot of contextual questions: To what extent could Freud's theory of psychoanalysis really be said to 'demonstrate' the origins of our personalities? What part of Freud's many theories are you referring to when you write 'psychoanalysis'? What about the developments in psychoanalysis that have happened since Freud, and the many arguments against his theories? Your writing needs to take these questions into account, and at least be aware of them, even if you don't address all of them.
Do not just stop at discussing the pros and cons of a debate; academics rarely agree on interpretations of theories or ideas, so academic knowledge is more like a complex network of views than two clear sides.
When studying at level 6 (Bachelor's level) you will be aware that you need to develop your academic writing for higher education - but how? Will you need to use a lot of long words and complicated sentences? Will you be expected to include some original idea that no-one else has ever written about to get good marks?
Actually neither of these are what good academic writing is about. Rather you will need to be able to communicate complicated ideas clearly, know how to support the things you say with evidence, and explain your thinking.
Academic rigour means checking and testing information to assess whether it is free of errors and is backed by accurate and appropriate evidence. It needs to be strong so that it can support your arguments - like making sure foundations will hold a building up.
Whether you are writing about someone else's ideas or your own, you will be expected to support the points you wish to make with evidence, perhaps from your own primary research or observations, or from your reading. When this evidence is taken from someone else's work (a book, journal article or website, for instance), you need to provide a reference or citation to show the source.
The full marking criteria for bachelor's study can be found at the link below, the information in this section of the guide interprets this information to the context in which you are doing your studies.
In higher education, you are going to be asked to think about, explain and discuss a complex range of ideas and arguments. You may be bringing together ideas from a number of different scholars that you have read, for instance: or showing what the results of your own primary research mean in the context of a particular problem. In either case, it's important to write clearly so that your reader can be certain that they understand what you're saying, and that you understand what you're writing about.
How is this different from your previous study?
Avoid long, complex sentences... You are less likely to lose track of what you are trying to say if you write in shorter sentences. If you need to link a number of ideas together in a sentence, make sure you separate them with appropriate punctuation: commas, semi-colons, colons and parentheses. More on how to use punctuation.
Longer words don't make your writing more academic... A good piece of advice is to 'write to express, not to impress'. You are looking for words that will best communicate your ideas. Sometimes these will be long complicated words and sometimes they will be shorter. What you need is the most appropriate words for the job they have to do.
Give your reader signposts... If you tell your reader what you are going to say, they will know what to look out for. Include a few sentences in your introduction on how you are going to answer the question: something like, "This essay will discuss the proposition that Brown's thesis is flawed. The proposition will be examined by first considering x, then looking at y, and finally z. Conclusions will then be drawn about the validity of Brown's thesis." Then start each of your sections with a topic sentence (or sub-heading, in a report) that shows what it is you are going to be discussing.
Watch out for informality and vagueness... You are trying to reduce any possibility of your reader misunderstanding what you are trying to say, so aim to avoid the kind of language that might be interpreted differently by different readers. More on writing formally:
It is confusing when you are told you need to be original in your thinking - but then you are told that you need more references to other people's work too. In higher education, being original is rarely about having a brilliant idea that no-one has ever had before. Rather it means that you will be expected to take different sources of information and think about how they fit (or do not fit) together so that you can work out your own interpretation and understanding of the topic.
Always start from your own ideas… so that you are less likely to fall into the trap of uncritically believing the first scholar you read. Before you start doing detailed research, take what you know already about the topic, and use it to make an educated guess about the answer to the question or main message about the topic you are researching. Then test that idea against your reading or research.
Your conclusion is for summing up… not for adding speculative ideas with no evidence to support them. If you have a brilliant original idea and can show how you worked it out and how it fits into the evidence you have, then include it in the main body of your work.
Do not worry!... your work will naturally be original if you always think critically and have a bit of confidence in your own interpretations and evaluations. If you and your best friend both read the same books and articles, attended the same lectures, and wrote an answer to the same question, they would still both be different and original, provided you do your own thinking and don't uncritically believe other people's ideas.